Sam’s Club and Costco

There are many positives that can be drawn from the way that Costco runs and controls its business. Costco’s motto is â€Å"To continuously provide our members with quality goods and services at the lowest possible prices† (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). They have stuck to this mantra by providing affordable memberships to its customers, and affordable pricing of its merchandise. Costco’s strategy of low pricing and limited product line and selection made Costco successful by keeping their margins below their competitors; this is a positive in that it will draw more customers and more accounts for the growth and prosperity of the business. Costco’s limited product line and selection is also a positive because unlike it competitors, Costco offers efficiency in its sale process and makes it easier for the business to be managed. Sinegal stated that â€Å"If you have ten customers in to buy Advil, how many are not going to but any because you just have one size? Maybe one or two, we refer to that as the intelligent loss of sales† (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). Another positive is Costco’s approach to treasure-hunt shopping. Costco tries to intrigue its customers by creating a sense of urgency with certain products that are high-end and that the company knows will sell-out quickly. Although these items a lot of times are higher priced, they still are reasonably lower than the average department store or its membership warehouse competitors. The only negative would be Costco’s marketing and advertising strategy. Although the stores reputation and low pricing have constituted in the franchises high level of success, their marketing strategy is lacking some key elements. Costco believes that direct mailings was the best possible marketing and advertising strategy but are missing out on the possibility of gaining a higher number of customers due to their lack of internet presence. The key factor that comes to mind is that Costco doesn’t offer a list of their store items online, which doesn’t give a consumer who isn’t familiar with the store a chance get the full spectrum of what they truly offer. Although Costco 3 Costco is a large franchise, in most cases; word of mouth simply won’t get a business the clientele they truly need to be successful or a leader in their respective arena. There were two strategic elements utilized by Costco that were insightful, the first being how Costco developed its personnel from within. The case of Jim Sinegal comes to light. When Sol Price made Jim Sinegal the manager of the original Price Club, he knew that Jim had a special knack for discount retailing and for spotting what a store was doing wrong (usually either not being in the right merchandise categories or not selling items at the right price points) very things that was good at and that were at the roots of Price’s Club growing success in the marketplace (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). Sinegal applied this same concept when he partnered with Jeff Brotman, who was the elevated to vice chairman in 1993 and then to chairman in 1994. This strategic element is what made both Price Club and Costco very successful. The second strategic element that was insightful was the way in which Costco formulated its strategy on low prices and its limited product and selection. Costco’s view of the intelligent loss of sales, proved viable because they were willing to lose one or two customers to capture a higher number of clientele in the long run, and adhering to this strategy makes their business efficient and profitable. The formulation of strategy must take into consideration important external parties. For Costco, the competitor and their targeted customers were two constituencies. How was their strategy influenced by these parties? Did their strategy reflect adequate consideration of the needs of these two groups? Costco’s strategy was definitely influenced by its customers and its competitor. From a competitor’s standpoint Costco wanted to a provide services, prices, and products that rivaled its competitor Sam’s Club. Costco’s combining of high quality and low prices id the driving for behind Costco’s success. It is evident that Sam Walton, with Wal-Mart and Sam’s club played an integral part in the way the Costco has devised its strategy. Costco’s average pay, for example, is $17 an hour and is 42% higher than its fiercest rival Sam’s Club. Costco’s health plan also makes other retailers look Scroogish, Costco’s workers were only paying just 4 percent toward their health costs and raised it to only 8 percent when Sam’s Club and the retail average is at 25 percent (Bowmer, 2007). Costco isn’t simply looking to be better that the competition they want Costco 4 to be demonstrably better,† said John Matthews, Costco’s senior vice president for human resources (Bowmer, 2007). From the customer’s standpoint Costco looks to keep increasing its consumer base by providing low prices that aren’t coming at the workers’ expense, they believe this is the key to providing a good service and good business as a whole. Costco caters to the customer, by not becoming a casualty in the pricing war among retailers and wholesale club industries alike. A cardinal rule that has been implemented is that no item can be marked up by more than 14 percent and no private label item by more than 15 percent. In contract supermarkets generally mark up merchandise by 25 percent and department stores by 50 percent (Bowmer, 2007). Costco strives to be good merchants and offer the greatest value to the customer, Costco constantly strives to figure out how they are going lower their prices while their competition looks for ways to get to get more money for their items. Costco has a good understanding of its customers and knows that they don’t gain clientele by having fancy displays and mascots etc†¦ they know that the values they have attract and keep customers coming back, as well as attract new prospects. The company’s knack for adjusting and seeing things in a new way explains how Costco’s customers influence on the decisions and strategies set forth by the company. Costco’s strategy reflects adequate consideration of its customers and capitalizes on the needs that its competitors have. One can draw this conclusion because Costco has diagnosed what the customer needs, values and wants from a proprietor, and also have evaluated what the competition is lacking and perfected their mantra of providing low prices and quality products and services. They have formulated strong objectives that benefit their workers, customers and shareholders, and strategized a plan to be more successful than the competitor with a business model than can be considered overly generous in regards to its customers and workers in comparison to the competition.

Vitamin C and Scurvy

Scurvy (N. Lat. scorbutus) is a deficiency disease that results from insufficient intake of vitamin C, which is required for correct collagen synthesis in humans. The scientific name of vitamin C, ascorbic acid, is derived from the Latin name of scurvy, scorbutus. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all mucous membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth. Scurvy was at one time common among sailors, pirates and others who were on ships that were out to sea longer than perishable fruits and vegetables could be stored and by soldiers who were similarly separated from these foods for extended periods. Scurvy treatment using Indian Gooseberry The Indian gooseberry is one of the most effective home remedies for scurvy. It is the richest source of vitamin C. Dry amla should be powdered with an equal quantity of sugar. This powder should be given in doses of one teaspoon, three times daily, with milk Scurvy treatment using Lime and Lemon The use of lime and lemon is highly beneficial in the prevention and treatment of scurvy. Being rich sources of vitamin C, lime and lemon are regarded as foods of exceptional therapeutic value. They have saved the lives of innumerable crews of ocean-going vessels from scurvy. The juice of one lime or lemon mixed in a glass of water, with a teaspoon of honey, should be taken for treating this condition Scurvy treatment using Potato Potato is regarded as an excellent food remedy for scurvy. It contains up to 17 mg of vitamin C, can be found in 100 mg of potatoes. It has been noted that scurvy in Europe has become more and more uncommon with the progress of potato cultivation and it makes its appearance only when the crop fails Prevention Scurvy can be prevented by a diet that includes certain citrus fruits such as oranges or lemons. Other good sources of vitamin C are fruits such as blackcurrants, guava, kiwi, papaya, tomatoes and strawberries. It can also be found in some vegetables, such as bell peppers, broccoli, potatoes, cabbage, spinach and paprika, as well as some pickled vegetables. Though redundant in the presence of a balanced diet, various nutritional supplements are available that provide ascorbic acid well in excess of that required to prevent scurvy,[10] and even some candies contain vitamin C.

Selfawareness and career management feedbaack Essay

Selfawareness and career management feedbaack - Essay Example Personal Career Strategy The personal career strategy will discuss about my personality type and the career that will match my personality. There are various tools and techniques to understand personality characteristics of a person. In this paper, ten tools and techniques have been explained to understand what type of personality characteristics match a person’s career. 1.1 Four Overlapping Career Competency There are five competencies for career development. It includes accountability and ownership, which means that at the individual viewpoint, it needs initiative and presumes personal accountability for objectives, results and deadlines. The individuals need to develop specific work goals in order to attain business results. Another competency is analytical thinking that means the ability to consider critically as well as systematically information related to the job. ‘Challenges the status quo’ is another competency which refers that growth and development of an individual along with organisation is based on the capability of the employees to modify their conventional thinking. The competency collaboration or integration denotes that for developing opportunities across the whole organisation, the individuals are required to think and work collaboratively. Communication or persuasion refers that for success of an individual, strong communication along with skill are essential (Nash, 1998). I have experienced this gradual development of career opportunities throughout the five years during which I had been working in the HR department for an organization. My experience taught me the lesson that realizing the personal career competencies is more important than anything else for an individual. In the development process of career opportunities, we should focus comprehensively on the identification of our competencies. 1.2 Holland Hexagon John Holland’s hexagonal model describes the relationship between the personality types of a perso n related to the environment. There are six key personality types which include realistic, social, artistic, investigative, enterprising and conventional. People who select their work environment in relation to their personality are likely to be more successful than others (Career Key, 2011). Realistic refers to the people who possess high-quality of physical skill but they may face trouble while communicating with others. They provide preference over things rather than dealing with people or ideas. Investigative people are task oriented and provide interest to take responsibilities that provide them with opportunities in their work. Artistic people prefer to work in artistic environment and are extremely structured. Social personality types prefer to contact with others and want to solve problem through discussion. Such people are good leaders and are cheerful and take responsibilities that provide them opportunity to relate to others. Enterprising people are energetic, self-confid ent, dominant, challenging and prefer to work in expensive setting. Conventional personality typ

Critical Response Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical Response - Research Paper Example David Grindstaff’s Queering marriage: An Ideographic Interrogation of Heteronormative Subjectivity â€Å"maps the contemporary scene of heteronormative power and resistance through two rhetorical performances of gay male identity† using his and other theorists’ ideas. I totally agree with him when he said: â€Å"The recent controversy surrounding same-sex marriage marks the institution, practice, and concept of marriage as a significant site of power and resistance within American culture (p. 258)†. In my opinion, human rights apply to everybody regardless of gender, race, and preferences. Grindaff said that â€Å"†¦the decision to sanction same-sex marriage would extend legal and economic advantages to same-sex couples, which appears to carry the promise of social equality on a broader scale† (p. 258). I totally agree with him. There are advantages that married couples enjoy and when same-sex marriage is approved, it will be unfair for the cou ple not to enjoy such advantages. As Pastor Allen has shared: Though my partner and I had a commitment ceremony in 2003, and obtained a marriage license this past July in Washington D.C., we learned that marriage is more than our religious convictions and our commitment, but also about laws that will protect us. Marriage equality is not about religious rights, but the right to equal benefits. At the end of 2003, the U.S. Government Accountability Office identified 1,138 federal provisions where marital status is a factor in determining or receiving benefits, rights and privileges. These include next-of-kin hospital visits and medical decisions where one partner is too ill to be competent; automatic inheritance in the absence of a will and inheritance of jointly owned real and personal property through the right of survivorship. These benefits allow all marriages access to the social and emotional supports that can produce healthy families and communities (Same-sex marriage is about equality, not religion. August 2010). Wilson’s â€Å"conservative† response to Andrew Sullivan rejects same-sex marriage for purely symbolic reasons. He first locates his grounds for equating â€Å"heterosexual marriage† (identity) with procreation (act) in scripture: the Torah links â€Å"sex to procreation the highest standard by which to judge sexual relations† (p 159). In other words, heterosexual marriage, in its ideal or symbolic form, serves procreative purposes (p. 267). Although I must admit that this is true it does not mean I agree. There are couples who get married but do not have children on purpose and there are married couples who cannot have children for several reasons such as physical and financial. And there are people who opt to have children but never get married. Kristen Houghton said in her article, â€Å"The reality of the word "marriage" is a meeting of two minds and the joining of two lives. Husband and wife need not always beco me Daddy and Mommy. Decide how you want to live and be realistic about your expectations, your needs, and your wants. To become or not become parents is a personal

Bio capital in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Bio capital in India - Essay Example There is a reconfiguration of the relationship of imperial power to colony into one of the vendors to the client. 1.3 Indebtedness Indebtedness is found at all levels and especially in interactions between corporations and their investors (1). Even entrepreneurs are indebted to the venture capitalists and are forced to relinquish control over their companies. Consumers also remain indebted to the biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries for undertaking high-risk, decade-long drug development ventures for therapies for otherwise untreatable diseases. This indebtedness is the symbolic capital for the industry. Thus indebtedness operates at multi-level even in India, observes Rajan. When India was in the midst of a crisis in 1991, it was suggested that India take further loans from IMF which would put India into a further state of indebtedness. The terms of the loan made India more fiscally responsible for the debts. A stage was thus created for moral reforms. Chapter 2 2.1 Biocap ital in India The strategic articulations of India do not resist the global orders of techno-scientific capitalism. Rajan has tried to establish a relationship between global capital and local forms of indebtedness. He has shown the ways in which touches down in different contexts in India. ICICI Knowledge Park in Andhra Pradesh and the Genome/Wellspring Hospital, Mumbai are the two locations where Rajan concentrated as both there are institutions and they represent the political ecologies within which they are situated.

Process Costing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Process Costing - Essay Example In the contemporary period, process costing is one successfully adopted accounting methodology in organizations. Organizations use process costing for effective cost calculation, especially at times when other costing models (job costing or activity based costing) are futile and not producing desired outcomes. Process costing is applied when activities like cost accumulation, cost assignment and cost assessment are to be performed and conducted. When both cost of fixed and variable natures are to be calculated then process costing comes into organizational application. Importance of Process Costing When an organization involves the multi-level production process and manufactures products in departmental sequence, then cost management is really a critical task. Process costing is a methodology than enables such organizations to calculate costs in the critical times. It is one methodology that can effectively be applied in manufacturing firms and organizations. Organizations where information flow is departmental can successfully adapt the strategic approach of process costing. This elaborates the comprehensive application of process costing in processing organizations. Literature Review Journal Article 1: Process-Based Costing: The Best of Activity-Based Costing Aim: Process costing is considered as a cost allocation process. It is known to be as a methodology that assigns cost to different process patterns with respect to assigning cost to process a sequence. The aim of this study is to determine that how process costing is effective in cost allocation procedure. How process costing applies in the activity of assigning costs to sub-sections of the process is answered in this study. Methodology: The study has adapted the case study format to conduct research and assessment. The case of semi conductor manufacturer is observed and analyzed in this study. The company was earlier a R&D unit which later on became a semi conductor manufacturer. This company was selected to understand process costing in a practical manner. The researcher first performed theoretical research to find out the importance of process costing manufacturing firms. Later the researcher analyzed the case of a manufacturer that produces semi conductors in batch forms. Functio nal activities of the selected company were analyzed to understand the practical implication of process costing(Sievanen & Tornberg, 2002). Conclusion: The study recognizes that a two-dimensional approach can be adopted on the basis of process costing methodology. These two dimensions are strategic and operational information collection. The study identifies that using the process costing with two dimensions, organization’s overall process cost can be calculated. Adopting the two dimension approach of process costing, cost of departmental procedures, functional activities and cost of objects and materials can be calculated. When departmental costs are known, cost allocation is an easy task to perform(Sievanen & Tornberg, 2002). Journal Article 2: Accounting for Process Cost Systems Aim: It has been noted that theories presented on process costing are certainly on a gap with the practical evidence that is present in this subject. There is certainly a gap present between proces s costing theory and practice as projected by most of the UK and Australian companies. The aim of this study is to understand this gap, which is done by means of understanding the New Zealand environment perspective(Parkinson, 2012). Research Methodology: The researcher adopted a pragmatic research design to conduct this study as both primary and secondary sources were used to perform

Economy and Nightlife Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economy and Nightlife - Essay Example Today, we can witness a number of changes and growing trends that characterize the economies of varied countries. Globalization and the growth of industries have led to a new culture of sorts---the infusion of night-life and the MNC culture in various countries, especially the developing nations that are growing accustomed to these changes. This cultural change has brought about an impact on the economy and the market conditions, as well. This paper strives to highlight this new phenomenon and links nightlife to the growth of the economy. The blossoming of 'night-life' and such other related phenomenon took place in the 1980s, when companies began looking for across-the-border initiatives and began perceiving the whole world as a global village. Let us analyse the causes for the growth of night-life, in order to comprehend its importance and how it has been an instrument of change in affecting the economy. Firstly, the changing structures of the cities contributed immensely to the linear setting up of producers and consumers. For instance, the central market areas of cities were cleared and shifted to other regions, which led to a change in not only the physical structure, but also in the culture of the cities. " Later on, this led to the capital construction and restructuring of cities, that paved way for greater potential. Hanging on in many cities in the mid-1970s the central business districts (CBDs) represented a fixed capital that companies were extremely reluctant to write off. This was not just in terms of buildings but also of land." (Harvey, 1985a; 1989). Secondly, growing competition among various cities to create a mark and an image for themselves, not only on the national level, but also in t he newly found global market led to a number of changes. In addition it created tensions within the local polity as planners trained to deal with the city as a system of objective factors (Hall, 1988) were faced with notions of urban cultures and spaces that few were equipped to deal with. Thirdly, the boom in consumption and the growth of the importance of consumerism led to this new culture. The cities oriented themselves in terms fo consumption and not production, which led to a new lease of cultural milieu. In the 1980s the (unevenly) revalorized city centre emerged as a new landscape of buildings, enterprises and signs concerned with the organisation and exploitation of consumption. This economy of consumption (distribution and marketing), unlike the economy of the production and exchange of goods (manufacturing and trade) had a much looser relationship to the local area. [Cities and the Night-time Economy, ANDY LOVATT & JUSTIN O'CONNOR]. Finally, the newly emergent culture as a result

Advice for the Critique of an Academic Journal Article

Advice for the Critique of an Academic Journal - Article Example is, the emphasis is on collecting various manifestations of INV, which the authors divide into three groups: â€Å"born global,† â€Å"born again global,† and â€Å"born international.† (Gabrielsson et al., 2014, p. 450). In the given theoretical framework, the authors use data from several case studies from mostly developing firms in knowledge-intensive sector. So, it is crucial to discuss validity, reliability, and transferability of the given support to the main idea. Based on the presented theoretical assumptions, the discussion seems reasonable. In particular, the examples of real activity fit the theoretical assumptions of its entrepreneurial features. In other words, case studies make the findings on causal relationship between the enterprise and opportunism to be â€Å"really about what they appear to be about† (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 157). Although, the presented data has doubtful actuality. Even though the article was published in 2014, the authors finished their interviews with founders and CEOs before 2011 (Gabrielsson et al., 2014, p. 451). Thus, the data omits recent challenges; for instance, the impact of global economic crisis in 2012. Nevertheless, analysis is deep and comprehensive. In fact, the authors highly value their choice of multiple case studies as they â€Å"are expected to be valid† (Gabrielsson et al., 2014, p. 451). So, the illustrative capacity of above-mentioned evidence is strong, as it has convincin g literature basis and numerous sources of practical evidence; in fact, it seems to be a pioneer research combination in the field. As for reliability of the evidence, it reveals its limits. By being the only source of presented data, multiple interviews with key actors make the selection bias is inevitable. In this context, classification of paths imposes the limit on number of cases. At the same time, this approach increases an accuracy of presented data. Actually, authors achieved their aim to create â€Å"a more holistic and contextual

People who care about the Earth Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

People who care about the Earth - Term Paper Example Compared to other biogas plant system, for example, the one that uses dung and sewerage, the system that uses food waste is pro- active since a small amount of food waste produces a lot of energy and only in a shorter period of time compared to the other conventional biogas system that uses dung and sewerage which requires up to over one month to complete the reaction and produce electrical energy (Pimm and Thomas 14). To be precise, two kilograms of food waste takes around 24 hours to complete the reaction after which approximately 500g of energy are produced in the form of methane. This invention of ARTI Biogas plant clearly indicates that it is the most efficient biogas system as it produces results with over approximately 800 times as efficient compared to other biogas systems (Bill 50). A brief history of people who invented the solar system includes Alexandre Edmond, who was instrumental in explaining how electricity can be harvested from sunlight (Frankham, David and Jonathan 46). Russell Ohl came later and invented the solar cell. The panel composed of particular metals which would emit electrons after being hit by direct sunlight. The electrons then flow through a conductor that then creates electricity. The use of solar power through the use of sunlight is increasingly efficient since it generates a lot of electricity without posing a threat to the universe through waste emissions and pollution. Solar panels are also considered efficient since they have a long lifespan meaning that it is quite reliable (Bill 56). Another individual who has contributed to conserving the planet is Tom Krimigis. Tom spent over 45 years of inventing and exploring the solar system. Tom even went ahead and won an achievement trophy, the National Air and Space Museum’s Trophy, which is currently the highest museum’s honor. Tom was highly instrumental in coming up with

Information resource managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Information resource managment - Essay Example The paper will consider the role of a chief information officer in the organization USAID. The United States Agency for International Development is a United States of America based organization that offers assistance to international countries especially those that might be disaster stricken; hit by natural calamities like typhoons, earthquakes and drought. The USAID organization is highly organized to ensure that all the funds that are come in, are well accounted for, and the solutions offered to different companies are well tailored so as to suit their different needs. The USAID organization operates under the mandate of the United States Secretary of State Office and US Federal government office. Being under the US government administration, the office is able to take advantage of the latest information technology related information through the government administration. The United States government is one of the most competitive in terms of availability of the latest information and access to information technology systems to support technical services available. Being part of the government, USAID is able to access and make use of the latest information technology information that it can utilize to make its systems efficient. The USAID information systems ensure that the necessary aid is delivered where it is required. As the Chief Information Officer at USAID, the professional in charge of the title ensures that the policy that is formulated by the organization is in line with the whole organizational strategy, mission and vision (USAID, 1). The CIO also ensures that the USAID information technology related policy is aligned to those of the communities that the agency intends on assisting. Most of the areas where the company does its work are developing countries where they might not have the latest information systems and supporting network infr astructure. In such cases,

Bruno - Boy in the Striped Pajamas Essay Example for Free

Bruno Boy in the Striped Pajamas Essay TALKATIVE Bruno is portrayed as talkative in the novel The Boy in the Striped Pajamas because when he went exploring he found a boy, named Shmuel on the other side of the fence he was not afraid to not only talk to him but, to have a bit of a conversation with Shmuel, although he had never met this boy before. Here is some of the conversation the two young boys carried on the first time they had met: â€Å"Hello,† said Bruno. â€Å"Hello,† said the boy. â€Å"I’ve been exploring,† he said. â€Å"Have you?† said the little boy. â€Å"Yes. For almost two hours now.† â€Å"Have you found anything?† asked the boy. â€Å"Very little.† â€Å"Nothing at all?† â€Å"Well, I found you,† said Bruno after a moment (page 106-107). CREATIVE Bruno is described as creative in this novel because when he let it slip to his sister that because of the rain he hadn’t been able to go and see Shmuel for a few days he was quickly able to make up an excuse that Shmuel was his imaginative friend: â€Å"I have a new friend,† he began. â€Å"A new friend that I go see everyday. And he’ll be waiting for me by now. But you cant tell anyone.† â€Å"Why Not?† â€Å"Because he’s an imaginary friend,† said Bruno trying his best to look embarrassed, just like Lieutenant Kotler had when he had became trapped in his story about his father in Switzerland. â€Å"We play together everyday† (page 155) CURIOUS In this novel Bruno is showed as curious because he loves to explore even though it is off limits at the new house, ‘Out-With’, Here is an example of a time when Bruno went exploring: ‘Before heading of in that direction, though, there was one final thing to investigate and that was the bench. All of these months he’d been looking at it and staring at the plaque from a distance and calling it ‘the bench with the plaque’, but he still had no idea what it said. Looking left and right to make sure that no one was coming, he ran over to it and squinted as he read the words. It was only a small bronze plaque and Bruno read it quietly to himself. ‘Presented on the occasion of the opening of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He hesitated. ‘Out-With Camp,’ he continued, stumbling over the name as usual. ‘June nineteen forty’ (page102). CARING Bruno is defined as caring throughout the book because he doesn’t recognize the various barriers presented, between him and Shmuel, Bruno is also very caring as he treats Shmuel as an equal unlike the soilder’s and many people around him. ‘Perhaps you can come to dinner with us one evening,’ said Bruno, although he wasn’t sure it was a very good idea. ‘Perhaps,’ said Shmuel, although he didn’t sound convinced. ‘Or I could come to you,’ said Bruno. ‘Perhaps I could come and meet your friends,’ he added hopefully (page 132). This specific reference from the novel shows two different barriers between Shmuel and Bruno, one being the fence between them and the other being the families when they go to supper together.

Metaphysical Thought Of Thomas Aquinas Philosophy Essay

Metaphysical Thought Of Thomas Aquinas Philosophy Essay Each science studies beings in a specific and determinate way. According to Aristotle, metaphysics studies the being in general, leaving aside their particular determinations.  [1]  Metaphysics thus, studies being qua being and what belongs essentially to it.  [2]  One of the concerns of metaphysics is what Aristotle termed as substance to indicate what, in fact, has existence in time and space, being subjected to the action of natural laws. Aristotle says: Clearly, then, the investigation of all things qua things belong to one science. Now in every case a science is concerned mainly with that which is first, both as that on which the others depend, and as that through which the others are named. Accordingly, if this is a substance, it is of substances that the philosopher should possess the principles and causes.  [3]   According to Aristotles metaphysical account, there is a distinction between what is apprehended by intuition and what is grasped by the intellect, between substance and essence. He says: Substances are also the parts which are constituents in substances taken in the first sense, which limit these substances and indicate a this, and without which the whole is annihilated. () The essence, whose formula is a definition, is also said to be the substance of each thing. The term a substance, then has two senses: it means the ultimate subject which is not predicated of something else, and also that which is a this and is separable, such being the shape or the form of each thing.  [4]  For Aristotle, substances are related to what exist in fact in the world, and about essence it is possible to say that, despite of the fact that it is part of the determination of the being, it has only conceptual existence. Aquinas adopted some of the presuppositions from Aristotles metaphysics in his ontology: such as all other sciences, metaphysics is causal, since it studies the principles through which beings are what they are.  [5]  Furthermore, Aquinas had to redefine some aspects and terminology of his predecessors in order to create his own metaphysical account. Staring with entia, given in sense experience it should be called substances. Each substance forms a complete whole, endowed with a structure that constitutes on ontological unity, or a unity of being. Insofar as a substance can be understood as one and defined, it is given the name essence. Essence is only substance insofar as it can be defined, it is what the definition says substance is. This is also a description of reality.  [6]   In Aquinas study of metaphysical beings, it is possible to assume that they can be analyzed in two distinct ways: as having a determinate form which distinguish themselves; or as existing in a strict sense, called respectively essentialist and existentialist perspectives by F. C. Copleston  [7]  . Considering the essentialist approach, Aquinas affirms that all beings have an essence which establishes a certain form to these beings: Because, a being in this sense is divided by the ten categories, essence must mean something common to all the natures trough which different beings are placed in different genera and species, as for example humanity is the essence of man, and so with regard to other things. Because the definition telling what a thing is signifies that by which a thing is located in its genus or species, philosophers have substituted the term quiddity for the term essence.  [8]   Considering the second way, the existentialist approach, beings existing in a strict sense, it is possible to realize that this book or this man are actually part of this world, inserted in space and subjected to the natural and causal laws. Here Aquinas makes a distinction between essence and existence. Therefore, after looking for reality in the sensible qualities of beings, then in their essences, then in their substances, philosophy had finally realized through Aquinas that true reality is actual essence.  [9]  Having an essence, means being able to be inserted into a genre and be part of a species through a specific difference. One can note that, given elements actually exist in time and space. Armand Maurer explains that Aquinas intends to expose the meaning of the terms a being and an essence, how being and essence are found in the different orders of reality, and the relation they have to our logical notions of genus, species and difference.  [10]   According to Gilson, existence is a condition for being, essence and all that can be studied by metaphysics and the core of reality. In Thomas technical language, the term esse means actual existence. It is the way a thing, which he calls res, is a being, an ens. It is to be that makes a certain thing to be a being. Esse is defined by its essence, namely that which the thing is.  [11]   By essentialism, it is possible to answer the following question: what something is? The definition, so states the essence of beings in general. For material substances, essence means the matter form composite subject to perception. Aquinas makes an analogy of the terms essence and existence to what Aristotle had made to the terms potency and act. Thus, the essence is the possibility that something determined to come into existence. By existentialism, the existence, in turn, is the upgrade of essence. This distinction between essence and existence as occurs with matter and form, act and potency, it is a logical one. Aquinas says: Everything that receives something from another is potential with regard to what it receives, and what is received in its actuality. The quiddity or form, therefore, which is the intelligence, must be potential with regard to the being it receives from God, and this being is received as an actuality.  [12]   Copleston explains that essence is that which answers the question what a thing is; it is substance considered as definable. It is clear that essence is that which is signified by the definition of a thing. In the case of material things the word essence signifies that which is composed of matter and form. Existence, on the other hand, is the act by which an essence or substance is or has a being. Existence denotes a certain act; for a thing is not said to exist by the fact that it is in potentiality but by the fact that it is in act. Essence is the potential metaphysical component in a thing, while existence is the act by which essence has being.  [13]   After having analyzed Aristotles and Aquinas concepts on essence and substance, it is possible to realize that Aquinas starting point to his metaphysics is Aristotles ontology, which is based in the doctrine of being qua being, or substance, the primary kind of being. From the distinction between essence and existence, as understood by Aquinas predecessors, such as Boethius and Avicenna, Aquinas goes beyond the Aristotelian metaphysics, to show that the final foundation of the ontology is not the substance but existence. Thus, St. Thomas establishes the metaphysical assumptions necessary to built his own metaphysical thought. 1,371 words

Social and Feminist Influences of Austen and Shakespeare

Social and Feminist Influences of Austen and Shakespeare By Khalil Jetha Introduction Feminist thought is a movement truly indicative of a dynamic society. When manifested in literature, it signifies the breaking of old traditions, and the manner in which feminism is presented reflects the attitude of the writer and society to the aforementioned changes. In the case of William Shakespeare (1564-1616), presenting empowered females was of marked significance as the Elizabethan era marked the strongest female monarchy England had ever seen. However, upon closer inspection it can be inferred that Shakespeare had an innate disregard for female authority, reflected by examining the characters Desdemona (from â€Å"Othello†), Kate (from â€Å"The Taming of the Shrew†), and Rosalind (from â€Å"As You Like It†). The prevailing approach in Shakespeare’s time was one of trepidation for the â€Å"wild† woman, or a female who did not conform to social expectations. The so-called â€Å"feminist† characters merely served to lend form and di mension to male characters and patriarchal themes. In contrast, later authors such as Jane Austen (1775-1817) used empowered characters such as Elizabeth Bennet (from Pride and Prejudice), Elinor Dashwood (from Sense and Sensibility), and Catherine Morland (from Northanger Abbey) to present feasible realities within the context of the society in which Austen lived. Working her characters into the framework of her era, Austen used women not as a means but as her end. Unlike Shakespeare’s characters, whose wiles and individuality served as gimmicks to promote patriarchy, Austen’s characters showed women who existed independently of male-dominated societies. Through careful dissection and comparison of texts, Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello†, â€Å"The Taming of the Shrew† (TOS), and â€Å"As You Like It† (AYLI), exemplify females whose independence and unorthodox qualities are eventually extinguished by overbearing male figures. Desdemona, Kate, and Rosalind are all radically different characters encompassing various aspects of the female psyche. Desdemona represents a rebellious daughter and sexually insatiable wife whose wiles cannot be controlled by men, a characteristic which drives her husband insane. Kate, â€Å"the shrew†, is the empowered woman who succumbs to the power of society, forgoing her independence to become a wife, in the process experiencing a â€Å"miraculous† metamorphosis instigated by her husband’s subjugation. Rosalind is unique among the three, an omniscient whose altruist nature cedes dominance to her alter ego, Ganymede. A more accurate description of the term â€Å"feminist† applies to Austen, whose characters do not serve to alter or develop male characters. While successfully writing novels whose plots and characters fit in 18th century England, Austen manages to show a different side of women, a side that is adversely affected by the character weaknesses of men. Her novels Northanger Abbey (NA), Pride and Prejudice (PP), and Sense and Sensibility (SS) present females whose pensive minds help them maneuver through the tumultuous and impractical societies in which they find themselves living. NA’s Catherine Morland, PP’s Elizabeth Bennet, and SS’ Elinor Dashwood are subtly different; however, the three female characters share their firm morals and unwavering integrity in common. Catherine Morland finds herself growing up in a world of first glances and vagaries, the sharp-witted Elizabeth Bennet spites the English bourgeois for their pride, finding that she herself has p rejudice to overcome. SS’ Elinor Dashwood finds that throughout her life she cannot rely solely on men though society wills her to do so; all three women overcome tribulation to grow into worldly individuals, unlike Shakespeare’s who either compromise their personality or lives in the course of their respective texts. Shakespeare’s Characters and Works Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello† is notable among Shakespeare’s tragedies because it presents a unique setting and character establishment. The namesake and protagonist, a Moor (a Muslim of African descent), transcends racial and religious boundaries to enter and lead the elite of Venice. The relationships between Othello and other Venetians communicates Shakespeare’s disdain for society, manifested in the villain Iago. From a feminist standpoint, however, the most prevalent victim of tragic circumstance is not the Moor of Venice, but rather the woman he marries. Desdemona is the classic martyr for feminist ideals, encumbered both as a woman struggling to pursue a life with the one she loves of another race and as a woman living in a man’s world, struggling to defend her marital fidelity and personal integrity. As a feminist martyr, she is â€Å"helplessly passive,† can â€Å"do nothing,† unable to â€Å"retaliate even in speech† be cause â€Å"her nature is infinitely sweet and her love absolute† (Bloom 1987, p. 80). When Othello accuses her of compromising her fidelity, she is insulted and maintains her integrity by refusing to even answer such allegations. Viewed by the reader, this action is one of pride and confidence. However, when she counters Othello, slightly mocking his insecurities by inquiring â€Å"[what he] could ask [her], that [she] should deny/Or stand so mammering on,† he perceives it as her attempts at masking her own desires to seek sexual satisfaction outside the bonds of matrimony (Act III, Scene iii, lines 69-71). Desdemona is constantly struggling with her environment. On the one hand, she fits into society as a married young woman. On the other, she presents a threat to the stability of patriarchal society. By marrying outside her race and religion, Desdemona defies custom by posing the scandal of miscegenated offspring. Confronted by her father, Desdemona vehemently rejects his concerns and contentions, favoring Othello despite the fact that she perceives â€Å"a divided duty†; Desdemona rationally argues in favor of Othello, professing that she should show Othello the same preference her â€Å"mother show’d/To [Brabantio]† (Act I, Scene iii, lines 178-188). In her argument that presupposes her assertiveness, Desdemona reveals social boundaries a woman faces: first she is bound by allegiance to her father, then she grows to devote her life to her husband. From a gender issues standpoint, her identity as a sexually charged, erratic newlywed earns her little more than violent encounters with Othello and her eventual murder. Her charged sexual nature â€Å"catalyze Othello’s sexual anxieties† through not fault of her own, as Iago manipulates Othello’s marital instability to begin with (Bloom 1987, p. 81). Ultimately, it is Othello’s indecision, his inability to â€Å"voice his suspicions directly† that further fuel his insanity and manipulation at Iago’s hands; Desdemona pays the ultimate price for her loyalties, both in marriage and to herself (Bloom 1987, p. 88). Throughout the play, Desdemona, like the other female characters of the play, never requires validation or reassurance of her value as a person. Othello represents the need for public respect, a reason why Iago’s suggestions of Desdemona’s infidelity drives him insane. Desdemona is further degraded as Othello gives Iago m ore credit than he does his own wife. In all his deceptions, â€Å"Iago’s feigned love gives him power which Desdemona’s genuine love cannot counteract†; Shakespeare shows his audience that female character is surpassed in importance even by spurious male camaraderie (Bloom 1987, p. 91). A victim of male circumstance, Desdemona is tragically caught between the Iago’s insecurities as a soldier surpassed by an outsider and Othello’s insecurities as an outsider seeking social acceptance. Othello’s marriage to Desdemona objectifies her; Iago spites Othello for marrying Desdemona as it completes what Iago perceives as Fate’s transgression against his station in life. Othello, in turn, is never sated, as his marriage to Desdemona should have consolidated his â€Å"power† as a man; instead, he resents Desdemona’s confidence and the power that even a suggestion of her infidelity asserts over him. The feminist criticism of the in stitution of love revolves around love’s existence as a means of control; when Othello’s male autonomy is compromised and he begins to speculate on his nature as secondary to his wife’s sexual power, he goes insane, ironically smothering her to death using the same sheets used during the night of their marriage’s consummation. Desdemona’s erstwhile functional marriage serves as the proverbial straw that breaks the camel’s back, as Othello â€Å"finds the scorn due the cuckold almost as difficult to bear as the loss of Desdemona† (Bloom 1987, p. 90). Shakespeare’s presentation of Desdemona as a pawn in Iago’s manipulation can be presented as his disdain with society’s misogyny. However, Desdemona’s portrayal as the helpless victim serves to further discredit female strength. While the tragic death of Othello surpasses Desdemona’s in literary importance, Desdemona becomes more tragic a character than her estranged husband. She has done nothing to earn the contempt of her husband, whose murderous intent and eventual suicide serve as the only means of self-validation. She has become an object in Othello’s â€Å"self-sacrifice†, nothing more than another factor in Shakespearean tragedy. In his portrayal of Desdemona, Shakespeare may have been able to present a feminist case for the station of women in society and their abuses at the hands of men. But Othello is not made the villain: Iago is the person portrayed as destroying a life, not in Desdemona’s passing but in Othello’s fall from grace. Desdemona, though a possible case for the argument of feminist characters in Elizabethan theatre, is ultimately too passive to be a feasible feminist. Had she asserted herself and called Othello’s insecurity, her husband’ s pride may have been compromised, but it would serve as a means for him to identify the primary culprits at hand. That Desdemona confronted her father and not her own husband plays the feminist argument into doubt; marriage, not self-sufficiency, was Desdemona’s final goal. She sought neither to validate herself nor her sense of self-worth, but rather chose a life of devotion to the Moor she loved. In essence, she presented herself as a victim from the very beginning. Unlike other Shakespeare plays, TOS can be taken both in its historical context and simultaneously be applied to the modern social constrictions women face. In its historical context, the play presents a comical obstacle standing between a man and the object of his affection. In a more contemporary setting, however, TOS is a story of one man’s conquest over a woman’s social and emotional independence and the domestication of a free spirit. The aforementioned setting makes sport out of breaking Kate’s will and reveals a theoretical rebuttal of radical feminism. As TOS unfolds, the audience sees Kate as a social pariah, unfit for society as she spurns the institution of marriage and the idea of love. An independent, sharp-tongued woman, she is demonized by the local male population who sees her as a barricade preventing courtship of the demure, younger, more favorable Bianca. It is not completely dismissible a notion that Shakespeare wrote TOS with the intent of exposing the farce of certain types of marriage. Shakespeare may have juxtaposed the stubborn, resilient, and often violent Kate with the desirable Bianca to show the duplicity of social marriages. In his article entitled â€Å"The Taming of the Shrew Mocks the World Mercantile Marriage†, Gareth Lloyd Evans describes the world of TOS as â€Å"mercantile to the end,† showing how â€Å"even at the conclusion of its biggest transaction (the marriage of Bianca), the gambling element remains† (Marvel 2000, p. 69). In the end, Kate becomes docile to the will of Petruch io, leaving Bianca flabbergasted at her sister’s change of heart. Kate’s radical change from self-avowed hater of all things love and marriage hence becomes the locus of the question of her nature as a feminist character: was Shakespeare’s portrayal of Kate as a virulent misanthrope a comic device or a social message? If Shakespeare intended to use Kate in the same manner with which he employed the character of Desdemona in Othello (that is, as a means to the plot’s end), then TOS takes on an entirely new direction. Using Kate as a comic device makes female independence the object of scorn and ridicule, and Shakespeare’s tone toward feminist issues would be dismissive and, condescension not withstanding, misogynist. As the object of a social statement, Kate would become a testament to the futilities of female cynicism and rejection of society. Examining Kate’s transition lends credibility to the said stance. If Shakespeare was a feminist writer, creating Kate’s character with the purpose of communicating a message to society at large, the â€Å"shrew† being tamed would be Petruchio. Instead, â€Å"Petruchio’s taming of Kate† is an act of instilling humility in â€Å"a spoiled, egotistical, well-fed, rich girl† and forcing her to accept â€Å"a will other than her own† (Marvel 2000, p. 147). The feminist standpoint would rather be one of prevailing contempt for Petruchio, a self-avowed social climber whose desire to marry Kate stems from expansion of his family’s wealth. Like Desdemona, Kate’s independence and strength as a female character are stifled by marriage; unlike Desdemona, Kate’s marriage to the ruffian Petruchio is one with ulterior motive. Kate’s wedding is â€Å"a travesty and a sacrilege,† marred by Petruchio’s intoxicat ion and unruly garb (Marvel 2000, p. 152). Almost indicative of Petruchio’s goal of â€Å"taming the shrew,† he further suppresses Kate by kissing her at the â€Å"‘will’ of ‘I will not’† (Marvel 2000, p. 152). Ironically, the kiss represents more than the overbearing will of an intoxicated groom. The significance of pacifying Kate’s ill will with a kiss is utterly symbolic of her contentions toward TOS’ opening. Standing at the altar, her final cry is one against a life of pacification and subjugation under the supremacy of a husband. The actual â€Å"taming† does not begin until after marriage, a further explanation of Kate’s disdain. What is more intriguing about Kate’s â€Å"taming† is the means in which she is subdued. Following her outrage at the spectacle of the wedding, Petruchio denies Kate food, insisting that it is for her own good. Later, he denies her access to the ornate clothing provided by the tailor. Before leaving for their return to Padua, Kate implores her husband that they make haste, as they are late. Petruchio sputters that he will not go, and that she is reading the time incorrectly; Petruchio condescendingly states that whenever they leave it will be at â€Å"what o’clock [he says] it is† (Act IV, Scene iii, line 189). The means denied Kate in her â€Å"taming† are food, clothing, and free will. Kate begins to rely on her husband for survival, warmth, and freedom of motion. Essentially, Petruchio becomes not only her husband but also her guardian, leaving Kate with the independence of a small child. It is almost as if he is brainwashing her, torturing her b y keeping her hungry, clothed in what way he sees fit, restricting her motion and even forcing her sense of time under the fetters of his will. Shakespeare’s only message here is not simply the futility of female emancipation, but the repercussions of atypical female action. Kate is portrayed as earning her fate through her belligerence and the days she spent terrorizing society with her outbursts and sporadic violence. The more a woman strays from the path society sets out for her, the harsher the â€Å"punishment† in an inescapable future marriage. The only negating aspect to the misogyny of Shakespearean assertion is Kate’s nature. Though stubborn, Kate is â€Å"intelligent, too†; in her apparent surrender to her husband’s mad will, Kate realizes â€Å"she can take the wind completely out of his sails, deprive his weapon of its power, even turn it against him—tame him in his own humor† (Marvel 2000, p. 52). By entertaining his strange whims, Kate can turn the tides against Petruchio, calling his bluff, so to speak. After all, Petruchio’s madness is forced, as he is trying to irk his wife and break her composure. As the entertaining, submitting wife, Kate also tames Petruchio; she conceivably leaves him no reason to be as erratic as the wife whose will he set out to break. In this sense, Kate is Petruchio’s equal, and in their social obscurity, they are made acceptable through the bonds of marriage. On the surface, Rosalind is socially acceptable, like most of Shakespeare’s characters. She is almost altruistic, exuding transcendent knowledge about life and love. She chastises Silvius for his devotion to Phoebe, yet swoons for Orlando and does not grow embittered at the prospect of love in the manner TOS’ Kate does. As one of the more engaging characters of the play, Rosalind, like â€Å"Othello’s† Desdemona, goes against her uncle’s wishes in the pursuit of her love, in this case manifested by Orlando. Unlike Desdemona, however, Rosalind is more congenial, coaxing her uncle by imploring his forgiveness. Rosalind testifies to Duke Frederick that if she offended him in her affections for Orlando, it was â€Å"[never] so much as in a thought unborn† (Act I, Scene iii, lines 49-50). As a lady and a daughter, Rosalind is the ideal woman to show society. She is polite, reserved, and wise beyond her years. Her personality, however, shifts to a point unparalleled by other Shakespearean characters. Rosalind’s power as a possible feminist character is best exemplified in her interactions while cross-dressed as Ganymede (â€Å"Ganymed†). After she assumes the identity of the male Ganymede, Rosalind’s character unfolds as one who is both enticing and mysterious, alluring to the romantic, erotic, and homoerotic aspects of theatre. She begins to take a more aggressive stance in her interaction with Orlando, preventing him from kissing her despite her desire, insisting that he should â€Å"speak first† (Act IV, Scene i, lines 69-74). As mentioned previously, men were exclusive actors as women were not permitted entry into the world of Elizabethan theatre. Homoeroticism was naturally an unavoidable subtext to any Shakespearean play. The choice of the Greek mythological figure of Ganymede is indicative of Shakespearean homoeroticism. In Greek myth, Ganymede was a shepherd boy with whom Zeus (Jove) fell in love. Rosalind on an Elizabethan stage would therefore be a male actor cross-dressed as a woman, who in the play cross-dresses as a homosexual man beguiling and perhaps slightly manipulating the unsuspecting Orlando. When taken into this context, â€Å"As You Like It† reveals new depth and content. Michael Shapiro delves into cross-gender devices in his book Gender in Play on the Shakespearean Stage: Boy Heroines Female Pages. Rosalind adopts â€Å"three separate and distinct layers of identity—Rosalind, [Ganymede], and ‘Rosalind’† (Shapiro 1994, p. 119). The sole purpose behind her schizophrenic metamorphosis is her love for Orlando, a man she has barely met. The first Rosalind is the vibrant character attracted to Orlando. Ganymede serves as a mentor to Orlando, a giver of advice; in her assumption of Ganymede’s identity, Rosalind alters her own nature as a woman living in a patriarchy as she takes the role of a mentor, giving â€Å"man-to-man advice to Orlando on the behavior of wives† (Shapiro 1994, p. 124). This ascension to egalitarian status with Orlando is reflective of the first feminist objective: to attain total social equality with men. The third Rosalind is the one who acts according to the advice she gives Orlando as Ganymede, and incidentally is the most intriguing of the three identities. As Ganymede, Rosalind has a control over Orlando’s emotions and thoughts. She can influence him whichever way she so pleases by suggesting, as a man, how Orlando ought to behave or react to women as wives. As the third Rosalind, she can indirectly affect Orlando by either corroborating through her actions any advice she gave as Ganymede, or further discredit Ganymede by acting opposite. Rosalind ultimately has the choice of how she wants Orlando to accept her. Rosalind can covet Orlando’s trust and affections as a man, and in doing so mold him to her liking so that she may later win him over as a woman. Ganymede’s presence as a trusted friend of Orlando is significant as it is perhaps the only way Rosalind can enjoy equality. This aspect of her cross-dressing is wholly non-feminist in its nature. From a rad ical feminist standpoint, there should be no gender labels, in which case Rosalind has failed to identify herself as such as she is forced to become a man. From a liberal feminist standpoint, gender labels can exist and differences should be respected. In the liberal feminist mindset, Rosalind has failed to gain equality as she is only given credibility as a man; the nature of the advice Orlando seeks regarding the nature of women as wives can only be trusted as coming from a man. Equally plausible is that Rosalind is forced to act the way she does to get what she wants. Rosalind may have taken the initiative to achieve her goals no matter the cost of identity. Furthermore, her male identity had the potential to liberate her female identities; as Ganymede, Rosalind had the power to dictate to Orlando the manner in which women should be approached. Shakespeare had the opportunity to relay a message through his cross-dressing female hero, but failed to endeavor to such communication. Though working within the limits of his society, Shakespeare did not address issues through Rosalind’s characters in the manner Austen does with her female protagonists. While heavy-handed techniques are not necessary, Shakespeare only flirted with the notion of empowered females as it augmented the situational comedy in AYLI. Shakespeare’s characters cannot be accurately described as feminists, even with respect to the social norms they challenge in his works. The Webster Dictionary defines feminism as â€Å"the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes.† Though her marriage to Othello was one of controversy, it was one that tested the boundaries of race and religion-relations. Miscegenation, not misogyny, was addressed in their relationship. Desdemona was perpetually a victim whose life rested solely in the hands of her insane husband. For Desdemona to be a feminist or even have feminist characteristics, she would have picked up a sword and joined Othello in the military. The Venice in which she lived only economically endowed her with a dowry, which would then be paid upon marriage. From a social standpoint, Desdemona may have been able to petition her fellow Venetians for help when she suspected Othello’s violent tendencies. However, she chose to leave her destiny in the hands of her husband, no matter the outcome. Kate, though constantly haranguing the general public for the institution of love, does not take her stance for feminist reasons. The traditional feminist attack on the institution of marriage focuses on marriage as forcing certain roles on women (motherhood and subjugation under a husband in particular). There is no indication that Kate took any of these stances; more plausible is that she is embittered by the fact that society forces marriage and not why it is forced. Rosalind is perhaps the strongest character of the three in question. That she is assertive has little to do with her identity as a feminist character. While there is little doubt that she is a hero and one of the foci of AYLI, and still less speculation on the strength of her character, she still does not actively seek political or economic equality. There is no mention of her stance on women in society. The most feminist aspect of Rosalind is her ability to transcend gender. In cross-dressing, she reflects new treatment by Orlando. Though not more positive or negative than her treatment when Orlando acknowledged Rosalind as a woman, as Ganymede, Rosalind shows that Orlando approaches her with similar respect. Rosalind’s sexual empowerment does deify her to a certain degree; it is as if she has the power to evoke feelings in men that would erstwhile not exist. With the exception of TOS’ Kate, Shakespearean females are usually composed individuals who contribute to the development of a plot or male character. However, all three Shakespearean characters can be described as heroes to a degree. Carol Pearson defines a hero in her book The Female Hero in American and British Literature as one who â€Å"departs from convention and thereby either implicitly or explicitly challenges the myths that define the status quo† (Pearson 1981, p. 16). Desdemona, though sexually more forward than other Shakespearean women, is at home in her surroundings. She is a born Venetian of high stature, and though she keeps her relationship with Othello secret, she has no conflicting interests in Venice. Her marriage to an outsider challenges the â€Å"myth† of requisite same-race marriage. Othello, on the other hand, is a man of different race and religion, struggling to make a name for himself in a new land. He is not nearly as self-assured as Desdemona, his physical differences weighing on his conscience and costing him peace of mind. Where Desdemona has made peace to accept her own death (she requests the wedding sheets be placed on the bed), Othello is never composed to the measure Desdemona exudes. In short, Desdemona acts as foil to Othello in every way; their union is one that naturally causes friction, without which Iago would never be able to manipulate the situation. Kate and Petruchio are very unique among Shakespearean couples; though Petruchio is hardly a hero by the Shakespearean norm of gallantry, he is the man who â€Å"tames the shrew.† However unorthodox a hero, Petruchio is the perfect match for Kate in his gruffness, his unkempt demeanor, and his social shortcomings. The two have only their resilient personalities in common; Kate is more polished and presentable than her wily husband, but the two both have a natural contempt for life that can only be quelled by their marriage. Their relationship is one of servant and master, the power balance shifting constantly. Though Kate detested the pandering of her past suitors, her attraction for Petruchio budded because he was precisely the opposite of what society (and her father) wanted for her. To keep her interest piqued, Petruchio naturally appealed to Kate and had to maintain a certain air about himself. Following their marriage, Kate became subservient, accepting Petruchio’s odd tendencies and orders to pacify him (he never would have expected a docile Kate, and receiving one shifted manipulation back into Kate’s hands). Though their personalities are strong, society’s favor puts the advantage in to Petruchio’s hands as in addition to a wife he also gained financial means. Kate is merely a means to an end for Petruchio, whereas Petruchio is the only means for Kate to attain what society expects of her. Rosalind and Orlando are another anomaly, though in the end, Rosalind exists more for Orlando than vice versa. Cross-dressing aside, Rosalind’s sweet temperament and witty rapport make her the ideal mate. Orlando, with the exception of his privileged birth and notable wrestling skills, is rather normal in every respect. Rosalind exists only to marry Orlando, and while her transsexual tendencies are a force with which to be reckoned, her antics merely delay what an inevitable relationship and existence. Her previously mentioned teasing was a perfect metaphor for a life whose direction she could not control. Shakespeare as a Feminist Whether in tragedies or comedies, Shakespeare’s female characters vary greatly in their nature and the social mold they fit. Given the Elizabethan era in which Shakespeare lived, most of his more wily and energetic female characters went against the grain of society. However, most all of Shakespeare’s more powerful female characters occurred in comedies, begging the question of whether or not they could be taken seriously as characters that could exist outside the realms of stage narrative. That these strong female characters exist only in comedies does not question any aspect of society. In keeping with his comedies’ humorous undertones, Shakespeare may very well have made his female characters strong because their existence would be laughable. After all, Elizabethan stage actors were all male; women were never allowed in theatre. Furthermore, the tendencies of comedic so-called â€Å"feminist† characters are to either succumb to society’s restrain ts, or to be smothered by overpowering male dominance. The women of Shakespeare’s plays are usually the ones who change, often when they become married. Katherina, for example, succumbs to marriage, settling for Petruchio, a drunkard whose ostentatious personality and strong sense of deviance outweighs her own rejections of conformity and domestication. Her resilience goes unrewarded, and she once again becomes a subservient figure in the archetypal patriarchy of the time. A large reason behind female suppression in Shakespearean plays was also public acceptance. No patron, male or female, would return to Shakespeare’s productions if the prevailing themes were the emancipation of women. Female assertion was a taboo, a reason why it was so popular in comedies. The greatest aspect of comedies is the aversion of tragedy; negative happenstances that reach fruition are tragedies, and the same happenstances that are avoided are comedies. As the defining characteristic of a c omedy, the resolution of a problem is mirrored in the pacification of said comedy’s female rogues. The strength of women in Shakespeare’s plays, therefore, is a literary tool used to build up the glory and triumph of men and the patriarchies in which they exist. What cannot be dismissed, however, is the context in which Shakespeare wrote the plays. Speculation of his historical surroundings denote Shakespeare’s tendency to pander to leadership, in this case, England’s greatest female monarch, Elizabeth I. Though society was largely patriarchal, the monarchy led by queen who did not marry. It is not completely unlikely that Shakespeare pandered to the female monarch, emulating her reluctance to wed in his â€Å"The Taming of the Shrew.† Queen Elizabeth, after all, did not marry, nor would she fit into society’s mold of the typical woman. Shakespeare’s characters were daring for the time, as they also broke the mold of Elizabethan women. Unlike Queen Elizabeth, however, the strong female characters of Shakespeare’s plays were exemplified by their ability to manipulate, control, and overpower men. In many ways, the strength of women served as a means to make women antagonists. For example, Desdemonaâ₠¬â„¢s power existed to drive Othello mad with her unchecked sexuality. She exhibited a power over men, one that would not be contained or controlled by men. Though Iago manipulated the characters of â€Å"Othello†, it was extreme jealousy that drove the play’s namesake mad, causing him to kill himself and the woman he could not control. The message conveyed in Othello could be construed to be a foreboding one to women in society and the men that dominated them: losing control of women and compromising male dominance leads to tragic consequences. Shakespeare’s Rosalind was unique, different from Desdemona and Katherina in her omniscience and enlightened state. Though the complexity of her emotions and thoughts is unrivaled in â€Å"As You Like It,† she takes on a darker side, one of manipulation and social subversion. Though laudable, her social deviance still leaves the play wanting for a male counterpart to complement her. She cannot criticize the respective stations of men and women for too long without succumbing to love’s fetters herself. It is as though Shakespeare is communicating the futility of female nonconformity. Shakespeare’s penultimate message in comedic female characters is one of concession. Though women are welcome to mock and society and live outside its bounds, they all must eventually â€Å"grow† into wives and docile domesticates

civil war :: essays research papers

The first major land battle was fought at Bull Run in Virginia in 1861. The men who were soldiers in these armies were volunteers who chose to go to war. They wanted to win a quick victory but instead found that there was a lot of marching and drill, living outdoors, disease, bad weather, and boredom. Where did all the soldiers who fought at Gettysburg come from? Why did they choose to go to war? How were the armies different? How were they so much alike? Just who were "Billy Yank" and "Johnny Reb"?Welcome! You're probably here because you are curious about our nation's past and the Civil War. At Gettysburg National Military Park, it is the ranger-historian's job to study this controversial time in our nation's history and provide an explanation, or interpretation, of these events to park visitors. Sound interesting? Well, it is! Explore these pages and see if you have what it takes to be a junior historian! What started the Civil War? The Civil War did not begin at Gettysburg. It began in 1861 when Southern states declared themselves independent by secession and formed the Confederacy. The United States was split in half and a terrible Civil War was the result. What Caused the Civil War? The first major land battle was fought at Bull Run in Virginia in 1861. The men who were soldiers in these armies were volunteers who chose to go to war. They wanted to win a quick victory but instead found that there was a lot of marching and drill, living outdoors, disease, bad weather, and boredom. Where did all the soldiers who fought at Gettysburg come from? Why did they choose to go to war? How were the armies different? How were they so much alike? Just who were "Billy Yank" and "Johnny Reb"? 1863 was the most critical year of the Civil War and for the hopes of the Confederacy. For two years, the Union and Confederate armies in the east battled with each other in Virginia and in Maryland. Confederate General Robert E. Lee advised Confederate president Jefferson Davis that the time was right to invade the North that summer. In June, almost 78,000 Confederates made their way northward into Pennsylvania with the support of southern leaders filled with high hopes that another victory would ensure independence for the South. Their hopes were dashed at the Battle of Gettysburg, which took place during the first three days of July 1863.

Corruption and Failure in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby :: Great Gatsby Essays

Corruption in The Great Gatsby      Ã‚   The theme of human corruption, its sources and consequences, is a common concern among writers from Shakespeare through J.D Salinger. Some suggest that it attacks from outside, while others depict corruption occurring from within the individual. In the case if The Great Gatsby and it's protagonist's fate, Fitzgerald shows both factors at work. The moral climate of the Roaring Twenties, Daisy Fay Buchanan's pernicious hold on him, and Jay Gatsby's own nature all contribute to his tragic demise.      Ã‚  Ã‚   First, the loose morality of Dan Cody, Gatsby's unfortunate role model, and superficial people who flock to Gatsby's parties contribute to Gatsby's downfall. Their examples encourages Gatsby's interpretation of The American Dream- his naive belief is that money and social standing are all that matter in his quest for Daisy. The self-absorbed debetants and their drunken escorts are among those who "crash" his extravagant soirees. As Nick Carroway tells us, "People were not invited- they went there." (pg.40) Shallow, corrupt people like Jordan Baker gossip with reckless abandon about their mysterious host. Their careless, superficial attitudes and wanton behavior represent Fitzgerald's depiction of the corrupt American Dream.      Ã‚   Another force of corruption responsible for Gatsby's fate is his obsession with a woman of Daisy's nature. Determined to marry her after returning from the war, he is blind to her shallow, cowardly nature. He is unable to see the corruption which lies beyond her physical beauty, charming manner and playful banter. That she is incapable of leaving her brutal husband, Tom, of committing herself to Gatsby despite his sacrifices escapes him. As Nick observes, Gatsby's expectation is absurdly simple:"He only wanted her to tell him [Tom] that she never loved him." (pg.91) Daisy is not worthy of the pedestal on which she is placed. Since she is hallow at the core, so is his dream which is based on a brief flirtation, nothing more.      Ã‚   Finally, Gatsby's own character-especially his willful obsession-contributes to his fate. Despite his naivetà © about Daisy and her friends who "are rich and play polo together," he, too, has been seduced by the lure of money and fame. Unable to control his obsessive desire to have Daisy, he cares little about the

The Worst Words :: Breast Cancer Dying Essays

The Worst Words The sun was shining through the open windows of the crowded, Twinkie-colored bus. The wind was blowing my hair into my face, and I could not wait to see my mommy. There were children yelling because it was Friday and school was out for the week. The excitement of the weekend was on all of the children’s minds. The bus slowed, turned into my mobile home park, and screeched to a stop. I got off the bus and ran into the arms of my mother. I remember her hair smelled like Pert Plus, and she was wearing her favorite perfume, White Shoulders. She would greet me off the bus every day. I loved to see her immediately after a long day of fifth grade. To me this was a normal day. However, to my mother, it was a scary, heartbreaking day. When we got home, she sat me down, looked at me, and said, â€Å"I need to tell you something. I don’t know if you will understand this, but, I have cancer.† Those words stick in my mind like a fly to flypaper. I remember not knowing exactly what she meant but I thought it was bad. I can still see her tears start to stream from her emerald green eyes. I have cancer. Why did my mommy have to have cancer? Whatever it was I knew I did not like it. It made her cry and made me want to fix what God had done to her. A few weeks passed by, full of testing and doctors’ visits. She had to go into the hospital for surgery one day. My dad told me that they were giving her a mastectomy. She was never going to feel adequate ever again. Only one breast will make any woman feel inadequate. I was scared and still did not fully understand what was going on. All I knew was that my mommy was not going to be home for a couple of days. It hurt not having her with me, because she had been there my whole life. My mother went in for a checkup a year after her breast cancer surgery and I went with her and my Grandma. My mother and Grandma were in the office for a couple of hours. I was scared. I read every magazine in the waiting room, waiting for them. The Worst Words :: Breast Cancer Dying Essays The Worst Words The sun was shining through the open windows of the crowded, Twinkie-colored bus. The wind was blowing my hair into my face, and I could not wait to see my mommy. There were children yelling because it was Friday and school was out for the week. The excitement of the weekend was on all of the children’s minds. The bus slowed, turned into my mobile home park, and screeched to a stop. I got off the bus and ran into the arms of my mother. I remember her hair smelled like Pert Plus, and she was wearing her favorite perfume, White Shoulders. She would greet me off the bus every day. I loved to see her immediately after a long day of fifth grade. To me this was a normal day. However, to my mother, it was a scary, heartbreaking day. When we got home, she sat me down, looked at me, and said, â€Å"I need to tell you something. I don’t know if you will understand this, but, I have cancer.† Those words stick in my mind like a fly to flypaper. I remember not knowing exactly what she meant but I thought it was bad. I can still see her tears start to stream from her emerald green eyes. I have cancer. Why did my mommy have to have cancer? Whatever it was I knew I did not like it. It made her cry and made me want to fix what God had done to her. A few weeks passed by, full of testing and doctors’ visits. She had to go into the hospital for surgery one day. My dad told me that they were giving her a mastectomy. She was never going to feel adequate ever again. Only one breast will make any woman feel inadequate. I was scared and still did not fully understand what was going on. All I knew was that my mommy was not going to be home for a couple of days. It hurt not having her with me, because she had been there my whole life. My mother went in for a checkup a year after her breast cancer surgery and I went with her and my Grandma. My mother and Grandma were in the office for a couple of hours. I was scared. I read every magazine in the waiting room, waiting for them.

Understanding Child and Young Person Development

Unit title: Understand child and young person development Unit number: CYP Core 3 Question 4 4. 1 Analyse the importance of early identification of speech, language and communication delays and disorders and the potential risks of late recognition. It is essential that speech, language and communication delays and disorders are noticed early so the relevant interventions can be used to support the child or young person. Answer the questions below. 1. How can observation be used to identify speech, language and communication delays? 2. What should you do if you have concerns about a child’s development of speech, language and communication skills? 3. What would be the risks if these delays were not identified? Use your answers to help you analyse the importance of early identification of speech, language and communication delays and disorders and the potential risks in late recognition. The early years are a time for rapid learning and development in a child’s life. Language is very important to learning since it helps the child to store information in an organized way and to express the child’s thoughts. If a child has difficulty in communicating with others due to a speech and language delay or disorder the child will be at a disadvantage. The child will have many problems. The child may fail to understand instructions given by the adult and this may be interpreted as misbehaviour. For example the child has been instructed to put away the task and line up to go for the music lesson to another room at school. However the child has not understood what has to be done because of his inability to process the information. Instead the child goes and has a drink of water and takes out his lunch box. Teaching in schools is usually done through verbal description and instruction. The adult presents learning situations with the use of language or speech. Failure to understand means the child will be unable to store or use information provided. For example the child has to play a board game with three other children and so has to follow specific instructions shown by the adult according to the rules of the game. A child with language delay has limited resources for demonstrating knowledge and explaining their reasoning. For example the child wants to explain to the teacher the properties of a three dimension solid but finds it difficult to do so because of language delay. Oral language serves as a precursor to literary skills. For example the child first has to be a good communicator and then uses this skill to interact with others. Then the child uses vocabulary to understand and experience stories, songs, poems and rhymes. The child begins to enjoy reading and writing. Language ability is central to the ability to establish friendship with other children. The child has to be able to communicate and talk to his peers and form social relationships with them. For example the children use language to imagine at role play and develop social skills. There are a number of reasons why children experience difficulties and delays in speech, language and communication development. The causes may be due to ear infection where the child is unable to hear words or hear distorted sounds, or find it confusing and tiring to focus on verbal communication. The ear fluid may pose a problem for the child and sounds are muffled and not clear to the child’s hearing. The child may be experiencing specific difficulty in using their oral muscles effectively and this may affect speech. For example a child with cerebral palsy does not have much control over the mouth and the muscles around it and so cannot form the words properly. The child may say ‘b’ sound instead of ‘v’ and so the meaning of the word could be totally different-base for vase. Sometimes speech and language difficulties are passed down families. For example stammering or lisping. Problem’s during pregnancy and birth can also affect the child’s developing brain and contribute to speech and language difficulties as part of a wider developmental delay. For example a mother may experience bleeding of the placenta during pregnancy and this may affect the unborn child. The child born thus may be able to say certain sounds but not be able to speak clearly as the vocal chords may be affected or due to damage in the brain that controls language. There may be a recognised syndrome or disorder that causes language difficulty for the child and is not able to communicate with others. The child may have a lack of stimulation and support to provide the rich language experience necessary to develop speech, language and communication skills. For example at school, the setting may not have an enabling environment to stimulate the child’s different interests necessary for acquiring language. The books, music, songs and so on may not stimulate and interest the child. For most children there is no clear reason as to why there is a delay in the development of speech, language and communication skills. Therefore, an adult should never assume that the child’s speech, language and communication problems are due to hearing loss. It may be that the child is experiencing communicating difficulties that are unrelated to their hearing problems because the child may not have acquired the vocabulary necessary to express his thoughts and actions. It is important to observe the child carefully, closely and to listen to them in different situations to ensure that the teacher is clear about what their needs are, their strengths and difficulties. It is important to observe the child in a range of settings and in both structured and unstructured situations. For example the child can be observed in the classroom; playground or lunch hall and the assessor can identify the child’s needs and plan the next step for the child’s development in speech, language and communication skills. Some children who begin settings with an apparent delay in their skills quickly progress as the child experiences language rich activities. Other children who are shy take a while to develop confidence to speak and express themselves because the child may be shy or reserved by nature. The most reliable assessor will take into account the child’s views, parents’ knowledge of the child and observations from all professionals who are involved with the development of the child. Assessment should be a continuous process and over a period of time so that one can gather evidence to inform and enable appropriate and timely support and provision for the child. The assessor should never be tempted to â€Å"wait and see†. There is a â€Å"window of opportunity†: if a child’s speech, language and communication skills are similar to his peers by age 5 12years then the child is making good progress. If it is not, then the child needs support at an early stage over a period of 2 years so that the child can progress and be at the same level as his peers so it is always better to start now when the problem has been identified. The assessor will enquire about the child’s hearing and request a test if necessary. The assessor will check physiological factors affecting development like vision, cleft palate, motor difficulties. The assessor will show particular awareness and sensitivity to, the needs of a child learning English as an additional language. To encourage and develop the child’s speech, language and communication skills most effectively, the adult needs to position herself face to face as the adult plays and talks to the children. The adult needs to shift her gaze between the activity the child does and the child. For example when the child sees the face of the adult it allows the child to understand the facial expressions and the lip pattern help the child to understand words. The adult must make sure that the child is paying attention each time the adult talks to the child. For example at circle time the teacher must ensure that the child is facing her and not be distracted. The child must be able to concentrate and not play with a piece of string found on the mat. The adult must keep language simple and avoid long and complicated sentences when talking and giving instructions to the child. Long winded sentences confuse and distract the child and the child may not be able to follow. At group time the adult must make sure that the child is seeing the adult’s face. This will help the child to understand emotions and facial expressions when the child is being read a story. The adult must use gestures since this will help and encourage the child to become good communicators. Learning to listen and speak emerges out of non-verbal communication like eye contact, facial expressions and hand gestures. The adult must ensure that there is no background noise that will affect the ability of the child to hear what the adult is saying. If there is noise the child will distracted and lose interest in the lesson. The adult should have knowledge of the child’s use of a dummy at home and should discourage parents to use it because problems arise in speech and the child may not be able to speak and pronounce words clearly. Sucking habits impede progress in speech, language and communication skills since the child interacts less socially with his peers and people around the child. The movement of the tongue is restricted and the child does not talk as much if the child did not have the dummy in the mouth. The dummy should be given to the child at bedtime or when really required and not to keep the child quiet. The adult should talk at a natural pace. If the adult speaks too fast the child will not understand what is being spoken. If the adult speaks very slowly the child loses interest and attention gets diverted since the child has a short attention span. If a child is shouted at and given commands then the child’s speech gets hampered. Shouting, by the child is viewed as unpleasant and jarring to the ear and the lip pattern gets distorted. The child may develop a fear and become withdrawn and afraid in the adult’s presence. If an adult in the school setting is concerned about the speech, language and communication skills of a child then the adult must discuss it with the parents. The adult can approach the parents in a sensitive manner and say the child has a problem with these particular speech sounds and not say that they cannot understand what the child says. With permission the school can seek specialist help so that the child’s needs can be supported appropriately at the right time and right age keeping all the other factors that help towards the building of good speech, language and communication skills. If the child has a delay in speech development, the child will not understand language spoken to them. The child will develop a range of sound speech inappropriate for their age. The child will not develop use of words and sentences appropriate to their age. The child may use language inappropriately. For example saying phrases that do not make sense in context or repeating chunks of language without any meaning. The child may find it unusually difficult to follow rules or join in conversation by looking, taking turns, sharing, interest in a subject and so on. The child may show frustration and be upset and may withdraw from conversation due to non-fluency in language. Sometimes the parents are very anxious about the child’s speech and then this reflects on the child’s behaviour and development. If an adult observes that the child is non-fluent that continues more than 6 months then the adult have to take serious action and appropriate measures should be adopted because it has been seen that with extra support, the child makes good progress. Speech, language and communication difficulties are common among children. Early identification therefore prevents difficulties later on especially in talking, listening, literacy and making friends.

Galileo vs. Church

Galileo is viewed as the father of modern science because he made and tested theories which we still go by in the current years. In the present day we are thought and live by the heliocentric theory. This basically means that the sun in in the center and the planets are in its orbit. The Roman Catholic Church believed that the earth was in the center, therefore the sun and other planets were in the Earth’s orbit. Galileo was charged of false teaching. The charge against Galileo was grounded on a report that Galileo had been personally ordered in 1616 not to discuss Copernicanism either orally or in writing.Cardinal Bellarmine had died, but Galileo produced a certificate signed by the cardinal, stating that Galileo had been subjected to no further restriction than applied to any Roman Catholic under the 1616 edict. No signed document contradicting this was ever found, but Galileo was compelled in 1633 to avoid and was sentenced to life imprisonment The Dialogue was ordered to b e burned, and the sentence against him was to be read publicly in every university.At the time, the church was the legal authority of the land and anything that went against the church's doctrine of what the Bible said, was considered heresy and punishable by excommunication, imprisonment, or death. In this case Galileo violated the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching the heliocentric theory. According to the church these theory’s by Galileo was trying to prove the bible false. The stronger side is Galileo’s side. In my opinion I would pick Galileo’s argument over the church because he tried to explain to the church his findings.The church being filled with pride and single-minded did not give Galileo a chance to explain and reveal his findings because they automatically thought he was going against the bible and trying to prove it wrong. They then prosecuted him. In conclusion, Galileo is known as the father of modern science, his theory which was overlooked in the past is now accepted and thought in the present day. This shows that the Roman Catholic Church was biased in the past and did not want to give him a chance to reveal and explain his findings.

Principles of developing adults Essay

Malcolm Knowles renowned for his work on adult learning (andragogy) identified the following principles of developing adults: * Adults need to be provided with a rationale as to why the learning is taking place * Adults need to be encouraged to be self-directive and responsible for their learning * Adults can fully contribute and participate in the learning process (collective wealth of experience enables them to do this) * Adults wish to learn if they can see a practical point to it * If adults believe the learning can enhance performance they will embrace the learning * Adults respond better to intrinsic motivators (increased knowledge and self-esteem) Preparing and designing learning and development events/interventions are vital in order to ensuring: * The development intervention has a clear purpose * Aims and objectives are clearly covered * The needs and learning styles of the learners are taken into account * Aims and objectives are integrated to organisational needs * The development intervention is motivating and engaging for individuals * There is active commitment from the participants to learning * That the resources and materials are complimentary to overall aims and objectives and ensure that the intervention is engaging and accessible * Sensitivity to all participants’ cultural, religious and other needs * An assessment of what has been developed is put in place * The interventions/outcomes are fully evaluated Clearly planned and designed events will help towards the advancement of: * Individual, team and organisational aims and objectives * Skills, knowledge and behaviours * Higher participant satisfaction with the intervention, which could encourage further engagement in the learning process * The likelihood that further development will be proposed However, no matter how effective the organisation of the event is and how much the promotional material tries to engage the learners, consideration needs to be taken into account of the organisational and individual barriers to learning when planning the process. Barriers (both organisational and individual) can include: * Lack of necessary resources and materials * Learning and development interventions previously not delivering on promises * Lack of positive communication and involvement to engage and motivate individuals of the benefits * Fear of learning and development * Fear of competence * Previous (negative) experiences of learning and development * Lack of foresight with regards to the benefits of learning and development * ‘We have tried this before and it did not work syndrome’ * ‘The learning does not fit in with my particular learning stylesnydrome’ * ‘Leave me alone, I am doing well syndrome’ The above should be taken seriously by organisations as these can have a negative impact on the organisation enhancing its skills, knowledge and behaviours and hence its overall performance. Continuous communication with staff, where they are actively involved in the design and preparation of the process can go some way to alleviating these difficulties. An effective performance management process that focuses on developing employee capabilities will provide a further mechanism for their input, whilst potentially increasing their confidence and abilities to involve themselves in the process. The active involvement of individuals may overcome many of the barriers, including negative previous experiences (probably in school) where learners may not have been treated like responsible adults (see information on adult learning below). There are a number of models and theories that can help identify how the needs of learners can be put into practice. * Instrumental learning theory – improving efficiency and effectiveness on the job once basic standards have been achieved * Cognitive learning theory – utilising information to acquire knowledge and put into context * Affective learning theory – development of attitudes and/or feelings to a particular area * Reinforcement theory – focus on behaviouralism in that the belief is that individuals can be conditioned and will change their behaviour based on a response to events or stimuli (e.g. a pay rise, threat of a warning * Social learning theory – enhancement of learning through social interaction and the sharing of knowledge, ideas and solutions * Experiential learning theory – more self-directed where individuals learn from their experience and importantly reflect on how they can develop and apply their learning further The type of learning is dependent on the context and the motivation and determination of the individual. Although an appreciation of learning theories is important to determine how people learn, an appreciation of different learning styles can enable organisations to undertake a more focused approach to developing L&D interventions. Kolb’s learning cycle – focuses on how individuals can utilise concrete experiences to help inform new developmental choices. To be truly effective, a learner should develop a mix of observation, reflection, direct involvement and analytical insight. Honey and Mumford Learning styles questionnaire – identified four distinct (although arguably mutually inclusive learning styles) that individuals may relate to in terms of preferences of learning. It is important for HR/L&D professionals to both identify how they adapt development to meet learners’ needs and enable individuals to explore learning methods they may not be totally comfortable with, yet will aid their total development. Bernice McCarthy’s 4MAT – identifies four styles of learning based on four questions/areas: (1) reasons for wanting to learn; (2) what learners like to know; (3) knowing how things work; (4) learners finding solutions for themselves. These will identify learners’ motivation for learning and how to design learning and development interventions to accommodate these. Bloom’s Domains for Learning – divides learning into three domains (categories): (1) Cognitive – knowledge/facts; (2) psychomotor – practical skills; (3) affective – attitudes/beliefs Sylvia Down’s MUD (memory, understanding and doing) – (1) memory – knowledge/facts; (2) understanding – concepts/abstract ideas; (3) doing – practical skills Legislative requirements In terms of preparing and designing, a number of key legislative requirements need to be taken into account, not only to adhere to the law, but more importantly to ensure a safe, comfortable environment is in place where people can flourish. Additionally, detailed record keeping could provide vital information for future decision making and performance enhancement. Key legislative requirements include: * Health and safety – ensuring a safe environment that is accessible for all * Equality legislation – ensuring accessibility and the reduction of discrimination * Data Protection – ensuring data is processed fairly, used only for a specific purpose and stored safely * Telecommunications and communication – particularly pertinent if delivery involves e-learning, blended and distance learning * Regulation – regulatory bodies may require detailed records to be kept for auditing purposes